America at Work: An Era of Transformation and Progress
Between 1894 and 1915, the United States experienced a period of immense change, unrest, and economic uncertainty that significantly impacted its workforce. The post-Civil War growth of unchecked industrialism brought both new job opportunities and unprecedented challenges. Concurrently, a surge in immigration from eastern and southern Europe forever transformed the composition of the American workforce. The economic depression of 1893, the third such occurrence in two decades, led to plant closures and widespread unemployment. These tumultuous years, however, laid the foundation for various initiatives that persist to this day, such as increased female workforce participation, workers’ benefits, the rise of white-collar and retail jobs, and the demand for reasonable work hours, vacations, and safer working conditions.
🏞️ Herding Horses Across a River
The 1890s witnessed the rapid growth of American cities as more individuals sought employment in urban industries. The United States emerged as a prominent industrial power, boasting diverse enterprises, including iron, steel, crude oil, and textiles manufacturing. This transition from agrarian lifestyles to wage-based labor attracted immigrants to urban centre’s in pursuit of better livelihoods. Working-class and immigrant families often relied on the income of multiple family members, including women and children, to make ends meet.
However, working conditions in these factories were harsh, with long hours extending up to ten to twelve hours a day. The unsafe environment frequently resulted in tragic accidents, while the division of tasks for efficiency led to monotonous and repetitive work for employees.
🐮 Driving Cattle to Pasture
In the face of demeaning working conditions, workers began uniting under collective groups and labor unions. Notably, the American Federation of Labor (AFL), founded in 1886 under Samuel Gompers’ leadership, represented skilled craftsmen. Meanwhile, the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), established in 1905, included unskilled labourer and adopted politically radical ideologies such as anarchism, communism, and socialism. Strikes and boycotts became common tools employed by these labor groups to press management for improved conditions. However, early successes remained elusive, as capitalists often sought government support to enforce their policies, as evidenced by the government’s suppression of the Pullman Strike by attaching mail cars to trains, invoking a law against impeding mail movement.
These labor conflicts prompted widespread recognition of the excesses of American business and the need for reforms. The Progressive Era, spanning approximately from 1900 to World War I, witnessed reformers striving to address perceived injustices and uplift the underprivileged. President Theodore Roosevelt advocated for business regulation and occasionally sided with workers’ rights against corporate interests. Woodrow Wilson’s presidency furthered progressive principles, leading to statutes for an eight-hour workday for railroad workers, workers’ compensation, and child labor regulation.
📬 Rural Wagon Delivering Mail, U.S.P.O.
As industries faced criticism, some companies adopted “welfare capitalism” to discourage unionisation and promote employee loyalty. They offered special benefits like subsidised housing, libraries, and social clubs. However, these initiatives ultimately faltered as unionism grew more powerful. Films from Westinghouse in 1904 provide insights into this era.
The rise of industrial capitalism also saw the proliferation of white-collar jobs, necessitating more administrative and clerical workers. The census began classifying such workers with managers rather than skilled craftsmen or unskilled labourers . Earning salaries instead of hourly or piecework wages, white-collar jobs demanded at least a high-school education and specific deportment and dress conventions, setting them apart as prestigious options. Immigrant families aspired to these positions to improve their social standing in a society often prejudiced against newcomers.
🌾 Loading Sugar Cane
While industrialisation played a central role, farming remained an essential aspect of American life. Farming, however, brought financial instability due to crop unpredictability and market fluctuations. Nevertheless, the number of farms increased in the West, particularly in the Great Plains, and cooperatives emerged to facilitate the sale and purchase of produce. In the South, small farmers faced greater economic insecurity due to post-Civil War debt. Sharecropping was common, with many African Americans compelled to surrender part of their produce to landowners.
Cities flourished in the West around massive cattle trading centre’s . The economy revolved around grain farming, cattle ranching, lumber, and metal and coal mining.
🛍️ Department Stores and Retail Jobs
Another significant development during this period was the emergence of department stores and retail jobs in urban areas. Industrial capitalism’s success in generating goods led to the demand for salespeople. Retail jobs were seen as more respectable than factory work, especially for women, who found increasing opportunities in this domain.
👩 Women in the Workforce
While women increasingly joined the workforce, their options remained limited by societal norms. Respectable occupations for women included factory work (particularly in garment and textile industries), teaching, nursing, domestic service, work in department stores, and clerical work in offices. Women, unfortunately, received lower pay than men, even for the same work, as society perceived men as the primary breadwinners. The hierarchy of women’s occupations mirrored that of men, with factory jobs perceived as superior to domestic service. Department store jobs occasionally offered management or buying opportunities. Clerical work was more prestigious due to its association with education and decorum.
🧑🚒 African Americans and Their Limited Opportunities
African Americans faced limited job opportunities, particularly in the South, where many worked as sharecroppers, agricultural wage labourer’s , or small landowners. Some worked in industrial jobs, mining, and forestry, while in cities, they engaged in unskilled labor like loading freight. African-American women often found work as domestic servants and laundresses. Some skilled African Americans worked as blacksmiths, carpenters, or railway workers. In Northern cities, African Americans generally had better economic prospects, but their options were still limited. Men often took on roles like janitors, servants, and waiters, while women worked as housekeepers, servants, laundresses, and waitresses.
🚒 Cleveland Fire Department
The collection of films from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries provides a glimpse into various jobs, including industrial work, cattle breeding in the West, and public service roles such as police and firefighters. Particularly noteworthy is the series of films capturing the operations of the U.S. Postal Office in 1903, showcasing the dynamic postal system of the time.
